Jainism

An Introduction to Jainism

  

Word Jainism

            Jainism is a religion of Jina (victory). There are some more words represent to Jina. These are – Arahanta, TIrthaMkara, Nigantha etc. Normally Jina means one who victor or conqueror. Further, ‘Jina means victor for killing or conquering all his passions, desires and appetites. Jina is the possessor of perfect knowledge’.[1] Everyone have passions, desires and appetites. They lead to do evil actions (karma) and make more Atma, existences. One who beyond passions, desires, appetites etc. he is the Jina or victor, conqueror. Arahanta means killer of the enemies.[2] Here enemies represent passion, desires, ignorance, lust, hatred etc. which elements lead to evil karmas. Therefore one who kills those kinds of enemies called Arahanta. Nigantha means those who are freed from all bonds.[3] Here also bonds represent to elements which lead to evil karmas. Passion, desires, hatred, ignorance are called bond, because these make more relative with existences. One, who is tangle by those bonds, cannot entangle easily. Being free from all bonds means entangle from those tangled bonds. In other hand, Nigantha means one who without ties. Actually, in the past Jains didn’t wear any cloths. ‘Omacelae’[4] as it says in Jain text name Uttaradyayana. Here Omacelae means without clothes. 

24 TIrthaMkaras

Normally Jains belongs to worrier’s caste. It is very rear to be a Jain from Brahmin caste. Prime mover of this religion was called Rshabhadeva. According to Jainism, he was born in AyodhyA and he lived 84,000 years. There were 23 TIrthaMkaras before MahAvIra, including with him. 23^rd TIrthaMkara was PArshvanAtha. He lived 250 years before MahAvIra. 

Lord Jain (Mahaveera)

24 TIrthaMkaras namely – 

1.      Rsabhadeva or AdinAtha

2.      ajitanAtha

3.      sambhavanAtha

4.      abhinandana

5.      SumatinAtha

6.      Padmaprabha

7.      suparshvanAtha

8.      Candraprabha

9.      SuviddhinAtha

10.  ShItalanAtha

11.  SreyAMshanAtha

12.  VasupUjya

13.  VimalanAtha

14.  anantanAtha

15.  dharmanAtha

16.  ShAntinAtha

17.  KunthunAtha

18.  aranAtha

19.  mallinAtha

20.  munisubrata

21.  naminAtha

22.  neminAtha or arisTanemi

23.  PArshvanAtha and

24.  mahAvIra[5]

Arisen the Jainism in 6^th centaury 

MahAvIra was the 24^th TIrthaMkara. MahAvIra continued this religion in sixth century in B.C.E. Earlier of MahAvIra’s period Brahmins ruled the society. They ruled however they wanted. They divided society into 4 parts. Those are - Brahmin, worrier, merchant, lower. These are called 4 castes. Also they made more rules for their advantages and less advantages for other castes. By their cruel ruling system most of people got fed up. Therefore those who got fed up with Brahmins, started to find the truth by meditation. This period call Upanishad period. Jain MahAvIra born in this period, in 599 BC. It was traditional date of MahAvIra’s Birth. But modern scholars want to fix this date in 539 BC.

Life of MahAvIra

Lord Jain (Mahaveera)

Whatever, his original name was VardhamAna, but he was also known as nAya or nAtaputta, KAsava, VesAliya, Vedehadinna, ShArsananAyaka, Buddha, Nigantha, Arahanta, MahAvIra, Jina, Shramana, TIrthankara so on. His most popular name was MahAvIra. He was born in a suburb of Vaishali called KuBDagrAma, now it known as VasukuBda. He belonged to the NAya tribe of which his father SiddhArtha was a chief. His father ruled in northeast India. His mother was TrishalA came from the Licchavi clan. She was the sister of CeTaka who was a head of a tribal confederacy. According to the Jain legends, TrishalA had fourteen or sixteen marvelous dreams. By this dream it was understood that the child would be either a Cakravarti (universal monarch) or a Tirthankara. Another legends say that MahAvIra was conceived into the womb of Brahmana lady called DevanandA, who was the wife of Rshabhadatta. But god Indra thinking that would be Tirthankara should belong to a noble family; therefore he transferred the womb of DevanandA to TrishalA. Whatever after he born in noble family, he grew up gradually. According to the Jain legends, when he was child he talented in 4 vedas. He married a lady called YashodA who belongs to the KauBDinya clan when he was young. He had a daughter called AnujA or PriyadarshanA. She married to a son of his sister, JamAli, who became one of his followers. 

At the age of thirty his parents death while observance hardly. After their death, VardhamAna became a monk, for which he received permission of his elder brother Nandivardhana. He gave up everything he possessed, all wealth and luxury, including valuable robes and ornaments, also his wife and child, and began to wander place to place by begging foods and searching the truth. While he lived ascetic life in this way he didn’t spend longer in same place. Thirteen months after he abandoned his clothing too having said that clothing also a kind of attachment. He started to do meditation and austerity. He did austerity for 12 years. In the 13^th year of his deprivation he achieved omniscience name Kevala under a SAla tree on the bank of the river RjupAlikA near a village called JrmbhikagrAma. Having attained omniscience he preached his doctrine included SyAdvAda, Atma, karma, panca mahA vrata, panca virati, rebirth etc. during 42 years. In 468 BC MahAvIra passed away at the age of 72 in a place called Majhima PAvA.

Division to Jainism

Digambara Jain monks

            After demised of MahAvIra, Jainism had been divided for many sects. But there are few different of activities. Mainly Jainism had divided into two sects. 

1.      Digambara and

2.      ShwetAmbara

Again Digambara divided into five sub-sects. They are-

1.      bIsapanthI

2.      terapanthI

3.      tAraBapanthi (samaiyApanthI)

4.      gumAnapanthi and

5.      totApanthI

Swetambara Jain monks

ShwetAmbara divided into three sub-sects. They are – 

1.      mUrtipUjaka (PujerA, derAvAsI)

2.      sthAnakavAsI (dhuBDiyA, bistolA, SAdhumArgI) and

3.      terapanthi[6]

There are also sub-divisions in each of these sub-sects. Division as Digambara and ShwetAmbara was happen in 79 or 80 AD as it consider in Jain philosophy. At the present there are lots of divisions of Jainism. Different between Digambara and ShwetAmbara are as in follow table. 

ShwetAmbara	Digambara
Perfectness can attain by a person one who clothe themselves. Therefore ShwetAmbara used to clothing a white clad.	Absolute nudity is imperative for perfectness as Digambaras says. Therefore they didn’t used to clothing having thought that sky is the clad for them.
Men and women are alike entitled to and can actually attain to salvation as ShwetAmbaras say.	Men can attain to salvation, but women cannot. Even 19th tIrthaMkara (virgin lady named Malli KumAri) was not a female, but a male as Digambaras say.
ShwetAmbaras accepted the Jainism council and their cannons.	Digambaras did not accepted the Jainism council and their cannons.
ShwetAmbara temple priest may be a Hindu people.	Digambara temple priest always should be a Jain monk.
Shravaka or a layman has to pass through 16 ceremonies from his conception to death according to ShwetAmbara tradition.	According to Digambara tradition there are 53 such ceremonies to do.

And also there are some differences between their 84 minor dogmas. As these there are some differences between some minor dogmas.

Jain Doctrine and Conduct for their Ultimate Goal

Some Main Doctrines of Jains

Jains ultimate goal is to attain Nibbana or Kevalin knowledge. There are some main doctrines in Jains which relation with Nibbana. As namely they are – five knowledge (paMca gnABa), AtmA, Kamma, nayas, Syadbad, rebirth, merit and demerit, emancipation, etc. These all doctrines are relative with Jain Nibbana. According to Jainism Nibbana is not vanishing of vitality, but being the soul happy infinitely forever. Soul escapes from body, but not vanishes of soul. Soul has not any qualities as form, color, taste, hot or cool. When it escapes from body, it will not come to body to join again. It will be complete (siddha) having gone upward gradually. In the state of completeness there are no any course and result elements of existence. Unshakeable faith, knowledge and holy behavior are very important to escape of the soul. Soul will escape when declined the heap of actions (karma), done by ones. The place of completeness (siddha) is up of this world. Thus escaped soul has start, but it has not end. Therefore escaped soul or soul which has gone to be completed (siddha) will not return again; it will stop right there. 

Sign of Jainism

Ones soul who attained nubbin will go upper and it will be paramAtmA (oversoul). Having been paramAtmA it will go upper and upper, and then it will be immortal. ParaMatmAs will go to the alolAlAsa which situated upper to brahmABDa (cosmos). There all are just paramAtmA (over soul). There is nothing, just blank, no start and no end, only there is infinite space. There is the Nibbana. One who attained Nibbana, his soul will go to this state. 

Nibbana is related with other two elements which teach by Jains. They are Atma and Kamma. Also Kamma and Atma have very close related with each other. Jains teach very different way of Kamma. It is not the so called inaccessible force that controls the fate of living beings in inexplicable ways. It does not simply mean "deed", "work", nor mystical force (adrsta), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul in intensity and quantity proportional to the thoughts, speech and physical actions carried out with attachments and aversions, causing further bondages. Karma in Jainism is something material (karmapaudgalam), which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has many effects. The effects of karma in Jainism are therefore a system of natural laws rather than moral laws. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then let go of the apple, the apple will fall due to gravitational force. In this example, there is no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of a physical action. The concept of Karma in Jainism is basically a reaction due to the attachment or aversion with which an activity (both positive and negative) is executed in thought, verbal and physical sense. Extending on the example outlined, the same apple dropped within a zero gravity environment such as a spacecraft circling around earth, will float in its place. Similarly, when one acts without attachment and aversion there will be no further karmic bonding to the soul.

Karmas are grouped as -

·         Destructive Karmas - that obstruct the true nature of the soul and

·         Non-Destructive Karmas - that only affect the body in which the soul resides. 

As long as there are Destructive Karmas, the soul is caged in a body and will have to experience pain and suffering in many different forms. Jainism has extensive sub-classifications and detailed explanations of each of these major categories. Jain liturgy and scriptures explains ways to stop the influx as well as get rid of the accumulated karmas.

            As well as these spiritual doctrines, he preached some sceptical doctrine too. SyAdvAda provides Jains with a systematic methodology to explore the real nature of reality and consider the problem in a non-violent way from different perspectives. This process ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, and thus it is known as theory of conditioned predication. These seven propositions are described as follows:

·         Syād-asti — in some ways it is

·         Syād-nāsti — in some ways it is not

·         Syād-asti-nāsti — in some ways it is and it is not

·         Syād-asti-avaktavya — in some ways it is and it is indescribable

·         Syād-nāsti-avaktavya — in some ways it is not and it is indescribable

·         Syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavya — in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable

·         Syād-avaktavya — in some ways it is indescribable[7]

As thus there are other minor doctrines which preached by mahAvIra. But these are the main doctrines he taught. 

Conduct of Jain monks

            According to the Jain books Jain monks have some conducts which are similar with Buddhist monks’ conducts. Buddhist monks were stood against to the Brahmins. As well as Jain monks too stood against to the Brahmins. Jain monks also called Srawaka as for Buddhist monks. They also searched truth as Buddhist monks. As these all are similar to Buddhist monks their behaviors too similar with Buddhist monks. According to Jain cannons one can understand who was a Jain monk and what his conduct is. According to the Uttaradhyayana, a canonical book of Jainism, a Jain monk observe the rules with regard to walking, begging, speaking, easing nature, receiving and keeping of things necessary for a monk, controlled himself and was always attentive to his duty. It has mentioned in uttaradnyayana as follow. 

iriesaNabhAsAe uccArasamiIsu ya,

Jao AyANanikkheve saMjao susamAhio.[8]

Further Jain monks conducts are controlled in mind (maNagutto) controlled in speech (vayagutto) controlled in body (kAyagutto) subdued senses (jiindio),[9] emancipated by austerities (tavena parisosiyaM),[10] swarthy dreadful one (dittarUve), turned-up noised (phokkanAse) cloth less person (omacelae), soil ghost (paMsupisAyabhUe), filthy cloth put on owns neck (samkaradUsaM parivariya kanThe),[11] samaNo, controlled own self (saMjao), celibate (bambhayArI), refrained from wealth, cook and collect (virao dhaBapayaBapariggahAo),[12] mendicant (tavassI)[13]  saints to high and lowly houses (uccAvayAiM muBiBo caranti), blessed fields (khettAi supesalAiM)[14]

These all conducts are mentioned in Jain cannons. By these conducts everyone can imagine how a Jain monk is. With these conducts it is very clear that they are mostly similar as Buddhist monks. Some of conducts are different such as miserably clad. Jain monks do not wear cloths. But Buddhist monks wear a robe to cover their nudity. 

            To attain Nibbana they practiced those conducts. Further they practice much more conducts to attain Nibbana. In namely these are – 

1.      Three Ratnas

2.      Three Guptis

3.      Five Virati

4.      Twelve vows (Vrata)

5.      Vegetarianism

6.      Unusual life

7.      Five knowledge etc. 

Very important fact to attain nubbin is three ratnas. 

1.      Choosing the right Faith

2.      Acquiring the right Knowledge

3.      Observing the right Conduct

Here choosing the right faith is more important, because without choose the right view and right faith in it one cannot attain Nibbana. In Buddhism also right faith is very important. It is the first state in Buddhism, it is similar to Jainism too. It can consider having placed in first fact of three jewels. Having chosen right faith, one should acquire the right knowledge. Having acquired right knowledge one know merit and demerit, wholesome and unwholesome. Then it is very easy to complete their vision. Having known merit and demerit one will choose merit or wholesome. In wholesome action or meritorious action definitely there are right conducts. So, they observe the right conduct too. As in this manner, it is consider that right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are very important to attain Nibbana in according to Jainism. This doctrinal point is little bit similar to buddhists’ trisikkA; Sila samAdhi and paGGA. 

Another main doctrinal point of Jains is three Guttis- 

1.      Kayagutti: Control of body

2.      Managutti: Control of the mind

3.      Vacanagutti: Control of speech[15]

These points are also similar to Buddhist teaching. Different is in their qualities. Jains taught that control of body is very important than others. Because they give more precedence to Kamma. Most kamma (actions) do by body. According to their conduct of Nibban, destruction of kamma is main point, as I mentioned above. Control of body is very consequential point to destruction of kamma or to attain Nibbana. They also they control their mind and speech. But in Buddhism mind is very important point among them, because mind is forerunner for every good or bad deeds as it is mentioned in Dhammapada. 

mano pubbaM gamA dhamma…[16]

And also Buddha had told that thought is the first action as 

cetanAhaM bhikkhave kammaM vadAmi…

Thoughts are origin in mind. Therefore mind should control not to think evil thought and think merit or wholesome thought. 

Jains control their body, speech and mind by various kind of orders. Among those orders or disciplines paGca virati are very consequent. Avoid from special five activities are call paGca virati. They are – 

1.      ahiMsA – Non violence

2.      SatyA – Truthfulness

3.      Asteya – Non stealing

4.      Brahmachariya – Celibacy

5.      Aparigraha – Non possession or Non materialism[17]

Herein ahiMsA is to cause no harm to living beings. This is the fundamental vow from which all other vows stem. It involves minimizing intentional and unintentional harm to any other living creature. "Non-violence" is sometimes interpreted as not killing, but the concept goes far beyond that. It includes not harming or insulting other living beings, either directly nor indirectly through others. There can be even no room for thought to injure others, and no speech that influences others to inflict harm. It also includes respecting the views of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of multiple views). Jains had said that they are parama avihiMsAvAda because they accept this order very thoroughly. They do not use to drink cool water, having considered insects that lived in water will die. They do not use to bath having considered insects will die that live in their body. Some of them walk very carefully considering about insects that live on the earth. Because of these advance observes they was called parama avihiMsAvAda. 

Adinath Jain Temple - Ranakpur in India

SatyA means speaking truth; avoiding falsehood. To always speak the truth in a harmless manner. A person who speaks the truth becomes trustworthy like a mother, venerable like a preceptor and dear to everyone like a kinsman. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles yield to it, whenever there is a conflict. For example, if speaking truth will lead to violence, it is perfectly moral to be silent.

               Asteya means not to steal form others. To not take anything that is not willingly given. Asteya, "non-stealing", is the strict adherence to one's own possessions, without desire to take another's. One should remain satisfied by whatever is earned through honest labour. Any attempt to squeeze material wealth from others and exploit the weak is considered theft. Some of the guidelines for this principle are:

(1)   Always give people fair value for labor or product.
(2) Never take things that are not offered.
(3) Never take things that are placed, dropped or forgotten by others.
(4) Never purchase cheaper things if the price is the result of improper method.

Brahmacariya means to control the senses including mind from indulgence. The basic intent of this vow is to conquer passion and to prevent the waste of energy. In this vow, the householder must not have a sensual relationship with anybody other than one's own spouse. Jain monks and nuns should practice complete abstinence from any sexual actions.

Aparigraha means to detach from people, places, and material things. Ownership of an object itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness. For householders, non-possession owns without attachment, because the notion of possession is illusory. The reality of life is that change is constant; thus, objects owned by someone today will be property of someone else in future. The householder is encouraged to discharge his or her duties to related people and objects as a trustee, without excessive attachment or aversion. For monks and nuns, non-possession is complete renunciation of property and relations including home and family.

            These five orders are called five great vows. These also help a soul to attain Nibbana. These are the controllers of human deeds. One cannot attain nibbana without observe these disciplines. Also there is some more vows practice by Jains. It called twelve vows.[18] There are also five great vows which I mentioned above. But in different name. They are – 

1.      Sthulaparanatipata viramana vrata – the vow of stopping from taking life of a living organism.

2.      Sthulamrisavada viramana vrata – the vow of avoiding to tell lies

3.      Sthulaadattadana viramana vrata – the vow to steal anything belonging to others for selfish ends or for fun.

4.      Sthulamaithuna viramana vrata – the vow to avoid extra material sexual relations

5.      Sthula parigraha viaramana vrata – the vow to put a limit to worldly possessions and daily necessities.

6.      Dikparimana vrata – the vow to put a limit to moving about in all directions.

7.      Bhogopabhoga viramana vrata – certain things are consumed only once as food drinks. Certain things are used more than once as ornaments, clothes, furniture, vehicles. The vow restricts the proportion or number of Bhoga and upabhoga.

8.      Anartha danda viramana vrata – the vow to give up unnecessary actions.

9.      Samayika vrata- it is a ritual performance, wherein, the person undertakes study, meditation, prayer etc. for 48 minutes by sitting on a pious seat.

10.  Desavakasika vrata- the vow to delimit for a day, only the movement in a direction as accepted in the 6^th vrata and proportion of bhogopabhoga as fixed in the seventh vrata. Aman does not need to travel a long distances every day. He does not enjoy all objects of enjoyment every day. Hence in this vrata limits concerning daily movement in different directions and concerning bhogaphoga are fixed. Rules have been framed to observe this vrata easily. 

11.  Pausadhopavasa vrata – performance of a certain special ritual with penance of 12 to 24 hours or for one or more days, by giving up all household and business activities.

12.  Atithisamvibhaga vrata – The vow to serve according to one’s capacity, monks, nuns, sravakasa and sravikas, with food, clothes, etc. The person who accepts this vow honours the monks, the nuns, the Sravakas and the Sravikas by offering them their daily necessities voluntarily land sincerely. 

The fore said 9^th, 10^th, 11^th and 12^th vratas are the four siksavratas. Without the distinction of caste, sect, color or country, any man or woman can adopt these 12 vratas for some time or for the whole life.

As it has known that Jains’ conduct are very hard to observe further they have some observations. There are some of orders they observe always as some of them wear unstitched white clothes some do not wear anything, bare - footed and bare handed not use caps or umbrellas or put on boots, sandals not use vehicles of any sort. They go from one place to another on foot. They always walk on foot. Jain monks do not possess any house. They stay in Upasrayas of pausadhshalas constructed by Jains for worship.They do not stay permanently in Upasrayas. They remain confined to one place for four months during the rainy season. They move from one place to another during the remaining eight months and preach religion to people. Jain monks, necessarily keep an Ogho and a muhapatti with them. When they go out or when they are on a journey they keep a stick also. Jain monks do not go out after sunset. They do not take water or food before sunrise and after sunset. They take food, etc. 48 minutes after sunrise. Thus, they abstain from food at night. They do not cook for themselves. They do not get their food cooked by others, just as a cow moves from one place to another and eats grass, so Jain monks collect proper alms from several places. This alms is called ‘gocari’. They use wooden vessels to accept ‘gocari’. Jain monks drink boiled water all through life. Jain monks do not get their hair cut. They do not shave by themselves. Once in a year they pull out the hair of their head and beard with hand, This process in called; Loca’. Jain female nuns also perform ‘Loca’. They bless, By Saying ‘Dharmalabha’, they bless those who bow down to their feet, always wish that all souls become religious and follow religion. Hence they speak only one word by way of blessing - Dharmalabha. Jain monks are engaged day and night in study, meditation, prayers, etc. These all conducts they do for their ultimate goal; Nibbana. 

There are five knowledge[19] one should develop to attain Nibbana according to Jainism. They are –

1.      mati – It is intellectual knowledge, derived from the peripheral contact of the sense with their objects or from mental illumination due to observation and inference.

2.      Sruti – It is clear knowledge derived from the study of scripture, books or from the interpretation of symbols or signs. These two are natural or commonsense knowledge.

3.      Abadhi – It is determinative knowledge of events and incidents taking place somewhere beyond the range of sense perceptions.

4.      manahparyAya – It is knowledge which can think about others’ thoughts.

5.      Kevalin – It covers everything whatsoever, present, past or future, visible or invisible. It is pure and non determinative in its character. When the soul of a kevalin leaves its material frame, it passes out of this mundane world and soars up straight towards the hyper-physical region. It remains there in a state of perfect equanimity and delight infinite disturbed by nothing. It is Nibbana or Moksha.

Here 1 and 2 are normal knowledge. It can develop by any normal people and normal power. But 2, 3, 4 are super sensuous knowledge. 3^rd is the perception of visible objects which proceeds directly from the soul without the meditation of sense organs. Though super sensuous still it cannot go beyond the limits of physical regions, while the fourth goes further beyond and can penetrate into the secrets of the heart. And fifth one is the Nirvana knowledge which is the ultimate goal of Jainism. 

      They have certain meditations too, to attain nirvana. They have to develop impermanent meditation, desolate meditation, ordure meditation, Asrava meditation, world meditation, happiness meditation etc. 

            Thus they have much kind of conducts to achieve their ultimate goal name Kevalin or Nirvana. Also they have daily routine, various kinds of virtues, etc. Those are basic points of their conduct of Nirvana. But advance points are, as I mentioned above, five great vows, twelve vows, three ratnas, three guptis, five kinds of knowledge, and also various kind of fasting etc. By observance of these conducts they tried to achieve their ultimate goal; Nirvana.

References

1.      Dr. Chandradhara Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi, India. 1976.

2.      Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya, Jain Philosophy Historical Outline, New Delhi, India. 1976.

3.      Puran Chand Nahar Krishnachandra Ghosh, Jainism Precepts and Practice, Delhi, India. 1988

4.      wdpdhH_ kdìß;a;kalvjr \Kr;k ysñ" W;a;rdOHhk iQ;%h" mqnqÿ m%skag¾ia l|dk" l|dk" 2007'

5.      Ou_nkaOq wurfialr" ffck wd.uh" .=Kfiak iy iud.u" fld<U" 1961'

---

[1] Page no.2 Jainism precepts and Practice- puran chand Nahar Krishnachandra Ghosh. Delhi, India. 1988

[2] Page no.2 Jainism precepts and Practice- puran chand Nahar Krishnachandra Ghosh. Delhi, India. 1988

[3] Page no.2 Jainism precepts and Practice- puran chand Nahar Krishnachandra Ghosh. Delhi, India. 1988

[4] Stanza no. 6 of HariesijjaM dvAdashaM adyayanaM, Uttaradhyayana Sutra-  Dr. Nabirittankadawara Gnyanaratana Thero.

[5] Page no. 51, Jain Philosophy Outline – Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya. 1976. New delhi, India.

[6] Page no 1, Jain Philosophy Outline – Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya. 1976. New delhi, India.

[7] Page no. 53, 54. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy – Dr. Chandradhar Sharma. Delhi, India. 1976

[8] Stanza no. 2, Uttaradhyayana.

[9] Stanza no. 3, Uttaradhyayana.

[10] Stanza no. 4, Uttaradhyayana.

[11] Stanza no. 6, Uttaradhyayana.

[12] Stanza no. 9, Uttaradhyayana.

[13] Stanza no. 10, Uttaradhyayana.

[14] Stanza no. 13, Uttaradhyayana.

[15] Stanza no. 3, Uttaradhyayana.

[16] Stanza no. 1, Dhammapada.

[17] Page no. 85. Jain Philosophy Historical Outline – Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya.

[18] Page no. 25, ffck wd.uh – Ou_nkaOq wurfialr' .=Kfiak iy iud.u" fld<U' 1961

[19] Page no. 160. Jain Philosophy Historical Outline – Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya.

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